星期四, 6月 24, 2004

The Earth











the Earth

My Mica


小眼睛美女

Man In "?"


soleares, "the mysterious"

星期三, 6月 09, 2004

Shrek 2 OST:People Ain't No Good

People Ain't No Good

People just ain't no good
I think that's well understood
You can see it everywhere you look
People just ain't no good
We were married under cherry trees
Under blossom we made pour vows
All the blossoms come sailing down
Through the streets and through the playgrounds
The sun would stream on the sheets
Awoken by the morning bird
We'd buy the Sunday newspapers
And never read a single word
People they ain't no good
People they ain't no good
People they ain't no good
Seasons came, Seasons went
The winter stripped the blossoms bare
A different tree now lines the streets
Shaking its fists in the air
The winter slammed us like a fist
The windows rattling in the gales
To which she drew the curtains
Made out of her wedding veils
People they ain't no good
People they ain't no good
People they ain't no good at all
To our love send a dozen white lilies
To our love send a coffin of wood
To our love let aal the pink-eyed pigeons coo
That people they just ain't no good
To our love send back all the letters
To our love a valentine of blood
To our love let all the jilted lovers cry
That people they just ain't no good
It ain't that in their hearts they're bad
They can comfort you, some even try
They nurse you when you're ill of health
They bury you when you go and die
It ain't that in their hearts they're bad
They'd stick by you if they could
But that's just bullshit
People just ain't no good
People they ain't no good
People they ain't no good
People they ain't no good
People they ain't no good at all

嘿嘿,大家可能想說史瑞克的音樂是很搞笑,沒什麼聽頭。不過,這次不一樣了。記得其中的一個場景嗎?史瑞克在酒吧裡借酒澆愁,背景音樂響起,帶點感傷卻又充滿無奈鋼琴聲響起,彈奏鋼琴的人緩緩地道出滿腹牢騷:"People just ain't no good....."。這首歌真是道盡了史瑞克的內心世界,或許他就應該離開公主吧。

撇開電影不談,這首歌是由Nick Cave(如果你仔細看看他的封面照片,你會發現他和楊桑簡直是一個模子印出來的)自彈自唱,低沉的嗓音配上不能再沉重的琴鍵,真想泡杯紅茶,閉上眼睛靜下來回想自己和這世界的互動。

Mica很喜歡這首歌。記得部部部部部曾經和我放這首歌給一些學生聽。

又是一張很棒的專輯,大頭智紅茶香味久久未曾消散感性推薦。

克魯格曼紐約時報專欄:勝利的幻覺

勝利的幻覺

我們聽說,共和黨對於民調顯示民眾對喬治布希在經濟方面的領導力不滿感到挫折。在他們看來,布希在經濟方面勝利的好消息早已被由伊拉克傳來的壞消息淹沒了。最近一篇在紐約時報上引述"共和黨官員,民調專家及策略專家"的焦慮的文章指出:"在過去四個月所新增加的九十萬個工作機會,這一項可能扭轉布希競選劣勢的發展,早已被伊拉克傳來的畫面從選民的心中被排擠掉了”。

很可笑,不是嗎?在二零零二年時,共和黨的策略專家利用對伊拉克發動戰爭來轉移民眾對經濟面壞消息的注意力。而現在,他們卻抱怨伊拉克轉移了選民在經濟面的焦點。不過,經濟面的消息真的這麼好嗎?非也。雖然近期經濟面的表現較這一執政團隊的前三年為佳,由過去的標準看來卻並不是令人刮目相看的。而且,經過了慘痛的三年,這個經濟體有大幅復甦的空間。

我們就先從過去四個月以來增加的"近九十萬個新工作機會"談起。這算是出色的嗎?請注意,在二千年的前四個月中,同時也是上一任總統的大選年,這個經濟體創造了一百一十萬個工作機會。在一封由布希競選團隊主管Ken Mehlman寄給布希支持者的電子郵件中,大篇幅地讚揚從去年八月(工作機會終於開始成長時)以來所新增加的一百一十萬個工作機會。但是,在二千年四月時,雇用人數已經比一九九九年八月時增加了二百三十萬個。

這還是經濟體在經過七年的持續成長,就業機會不容易在經濟體接近充分就業的情況下大幅成長所出現的。如果要找出與二零零四年相當的一年,我們需要追溯到一九九四年,當時經濟體正從老布希執政時的衰退慢慢復甦中。在該年的前四個月中,整個經濟體增加了一百三十萬個工作機會。

一九九四年的經驗也說明了就業機會的增長是如何地可能"扭轉"選情的。在一九九三年時二月至一九九四年十一月這段期間,經濟體增加了三百六十萬個工作機會,這遠遠超出了老布希政府的想像。雖然如此,認定比爾柯林頓正帶領國家走向歧途的選民,在期中大選中給予民主黨重挫。所以,當CBS新聞的民調顯示百分之六十五的美國民眾認為國家正步入歧途,這也創下了一九九四年以來的新高,是相當值得玩味的。
如果你想說服自己我並不只是在玩數字遊戲,可以到勞動統計局的網站stats.bls.gov,點選"美國經濟情勢一覽(U.S. economy at a glance)",然後再點選"雇用人數變化"尋找一個十年來每月工作機會增減的圖表。這圖表顯示了過去三十七個月,從二零零一年一月到二零零四年二月,在布希政府主政下令人失望的就業數字:每月的雇用人數下降或是遠低於柯林頓政府主政時的成長率平均值。三月和四月的數字較佳,但與一九九零年的水準比起來,實在不算出色。另外,只恢復到林頓政府主政時的工作機會成長率是不夠的,畢竟,經過了這些年委靡不振的就業表現,我們需要的是大幅且快速的增長來彌補。

我們可以這樣看。總統在二零零二年經濟報告的工作機會預測中假定,到二零零四年時經濟體會從二零零一年的衰退中完全復甦。根據官方的預估,這樣的復甦會為今年帶來平均約一億三千八百萬的雇用人數,這比實際的數目多出了七百萬。所以,我們需要彌補這七百萬個工作機會的差距。此外,就業是隨著一個變動的目標成長的:它必須每個月增加約十四萬個工作機會才能跟的上人口成長。在四月時,這個經濟體增加了二十八萬八千個工作機會。如果你計算一下,你會發現,布希總統需要維持上個月的成長率約四年才能達到他的經濟學家口中的充分就業水準。

因此底限是:布希總統的支持者沒有權利抱怨大眾未對他在經濟方面領導力的表達感激之意。三年的爛表現,接著是兩個月不出色的工作增長,這實在沒什麼好驕傲的。


原文:紐約時報克魯格曼專欄



星期二, 6月 08, 2004

開放你的創意:Make It Open 1

Make It Open 1

就先從我們這個"夢想社會部落格"談起吧。不知道是否有人注意到本部落格的著作權授權是採用"Creative Common Attribution ShareAlike 2.0"授權(如果你沒注意到,請往下捲動,可以在部落格的最下方發現)。這代表什麼呢?其實也沒有什麼太深奧的涵義在其中,只是代表本部落格歡迎讀者(文謅謅的說法為"閱聽人"):一,做任意的"複製(copy),散佈(distribution),展示(display)及表演(perform)"部落格的內容。二,製作此部落格的衍生作品(derivative works)。三,以此部落格的內容做商業用途(commercial use)。只要讀者能遵守下列兩個條件:一,標示原始作者(original author credit)。二,反向共享(share alike),意指如果你更動(alter),重新製作包裝(transform)或增添(build upon)部落格的內容,你必須將成品(resulting work)依照相同的方式授權。

哇,看起來很複雜耶。那我們舉一個簡單的例子。當大頭智把一篇文章放到部落格之後,其他人可以任意的複製,散佈,展示或表演該文章。另外,他們還可以製作與文章相關的作品,並且用於商業用途。但是,他們必須要標明文章的原作者;以及如果有任何的對原文的更動,重新製作包裝或增添,他們需要將成品以相同的授權方式(也就是Creative Common Attribution ShareAlike 2.0)發佈。

我想,你不禁想要問:這要幹嘛啊?現在各國都以著作權法來保障個人的著作,但是Creative Commons的授權方式則保障個人的著作在著作權法下能夠被所有人使用並成為公共領域的資源。Creative Commons對commons的定義其實很有趣,原文的定義為:the commons — resources that are not divided into individual bits of property but rather are jointly held so that anyone may use them without special permission,意指能被共同持有且任意使用的資源。也就是說,在Creative Commons的授權方式下,各式各樣的創作能夠在著作權法的保護下,成為在公共領域中的資源。

這個想法其實來自於開放原始碼的運動(Open Source Movement)(註一)。開放原始碼運動指的是程式原始碼的作者藉由某種授權方式(例如BSDL或是GNU GPL)將其原始碼開放給所有人使用。在這裡,Creative Commons的授權方式可視為對開放原始碼運動的延伸。理論上,開放原始碼的授權可以應用在各種形式的作品上,但是大部分是針對程式原始碼而設計的;Creative Commons被設計為可以應用在其他類型的創作上,例如歌曲創作,藝術作品,文字創作,互動式作品等等。此外,Creative Commons更將授權結構模組化,利用不同模組的組合,製作創作理想的授權方式(這個做法突破了開放原始碼單一授權的做法)。例如我們部落格的例子(註二)。

註一:關於這點,在Creative Commons中有這樣的討論。連結
註二:其實彭博文的碩士論文也是利用類似的授權,又稱為Copyleft。但是他沒有以正確的方式授權,只有加上了Copyleft的標示;另外所有國立大學的碩博士論文著作權其實是歸該校所有,因此這樣的雙重授權不知是否在著作權法律上有效。

參考資料:

Creative Commons
Open Soource Definition

星期日, 6月 06, 2004

Cold Mountain OST : You Will Be My Ain True Love

You Will Be My Ain True Love

You'll walk unscathed through musket fire,
No ploughman's blade will cut thee down,
No cutler's horn will mark thy face
And you will be my ain true love,
And you will be my ain true love

And as you walk through death's dark veil,
The cannon's thunder can't prevail,
And those who hunt thee down will fail,
And you will be my ain true love,
And you will be my ain true love.

Asleep inside the cannon's mouth,
The captain cries, "Here comes the rout,"
They'll seek to find me north and south,
I've gone to find my ain true love.

The field is cut and bleeds to red.
The cannon balls fly round my head,
The infirmary man may count me dead,
When I've gone to find my ain true love,
I've gone to find my ain true love.

大頭智流淚溫馨推薦:這首由Sting填詞(並合音),Alison Krauss演唱的You Will Be My Ain True Love可說是冷山這部電影的濃縮。冷山描寫美國南北戰爭期間(一八六四年左右,因為片頭的Petersberg戰役是在一八六四年七月三十日),一對戀人的愛情故事(裘德洛飾演的英蒙和妮可基嫚飾演的艾達)。相識不久的他們,因為美國內戰而分離,但他們卻毫不遲疑地將自己的一生互相託付,渴望再次重逢。英蒙因為幫助同袍受傷,被送往治療。厭倦戰爭的他成了逃兵,想要回到自己的故鄉冷山與艾達相守。電影也隨著英蒙的歸鄉路途而展開。這首歌曲主要描述艾達在等待英蒙歸來的心情,一路上,英蒙歷經許多驚險的挑戰,他終於回歸到愛人的身邊,也是她心中的摯愛。歌曲大致上描述艾達的心情,期待愛人能穿過槍林彈雨,毫髮無傷的歸來(本來想要翻譯出來,但是覺得失了味)。仔細回味一下電影,然後在好好看一下這首歌的歌詞,你就會知道大頭智為什麼要流淚溫馨推薦了。

這部電影有幾個值得注意的地方,在這和大家分享一下。一,星際大戰中的艾米達拉皇后(娜塔莉波特曼)令人驚艷:她這次不需要和R2D2溝通,而是操著濃厚的美國南方口音演出一個獨自扶養小孩的年輕少婦。天啊,我竟然沒認出她來。她演的不錯喔。二,電影帶出戰爭殘酷面的手法其實相當純熟。藉由英蒙的歸鄉路,從不同的層面觀察戰爭與人性。黑奴的角色,經濟的殘破,破碎的家庭等等,而最後,戰場竟然是在自己的故鄉,真是諷刺。三,音樂,貫穿整部電影的美國民謠,在T-Bone Burnnett的精心製作下,帶給你全然不同的感受。四,妮可基嫚的真的很漂亮。

對了,值得一提的是片頭的戰役。這場戰事發生在一八六四年七月三十日早晨四點四十五分,北軍引爆了埋在南軍陣地下的火藥。這並沒有為他們帶來優勢,反而因為陷入了壕溝與彈坑中,而遭到南軍的屠殺。Petersberg戰役持續了約一年(一八六四年六月到一八六五年四月)。

好音樂,不錯的電影,有空要去看:)

星期三, 6月 02, 2004

Equity Premium Puzzle: What is puzzling?

Stock Prices Fluctuation

In 1982, Robert J. Shiller published an interesting working paper entitled “Consumption, Asset Markets and Macroeconomic Fluctuations”. The argument is quite simple: what causes the fluctuation in composite stock index. He also set up four objectives for this paper: (1)Whether consumption theory can be used to explain fluctuations in stock price (2)Whether the model can be evaluated if aggregate consumption data is not representative (3)Whether prices of long-term assets can be explained by the model (4)Whether the business cycle behavior of real short-term interest rate is explained by the model. First, let us go through this model quickly.

A fact is that, over the last century (1890~1980), the standard deviation of the real annual return on the Standard & Poor’s Stock Price Index was about 20 percentage points. In other work, if you bought and held a market portfolio from the beginning of a particular year to the end of it, you ended up with a 20% gain or loss. What was the key factor to cause such a fluctuation? Shiller showed, under an Arrow-Debreu framework, conventional efficient markets model was not able to reconcile with historical data. However, a time-varying real discount rate might help to explain volatility in stock index.

Let us see how the mechanism works here. If we assume individual consumer choose to invest in freely tradable assets in order to smooth his/her consumption, then we may use the following expected utility maximization problem to describe his/her behavior. Equation (1) is the explicit form of this maximization problem. From it, we can derive the first order condition as in (2). Here, we assume an additively separable utility function, frictionless world and perfectly competitive market (we refer these settings as an Arrow-Debreu framework). By iterative substitution, equation (3) gives us the relationship between current stock price and future dividends. Another key feature of this equation is the real discount factor. The real discount factor reflects the fact: when evaluating stock price, not only future dividends are taken into account but also the intertemporal marginal rate of substitution.

Moreover, if we assume individual preference takes the form as in equation (4), then we can explicitly formulate the relationship between three stochastic series: stock price (represented by Standard & Poor’s Stock Price Index ), consumption series (represented by aggregate consumption data) and future dividends.

Nevertheless, historical data over the last century (1890~1980) does not support this simple description. Let me elaborate that a little bit. From historical data, we can see the volatility of stock price but a smooth trend of future dividends and consumption is clearly there. We can interpret this point in two ways: (1) it shows the failure of efficient markets model, (2) if there is no measurement error in historical data and we accept that consumption data is representative, then models along this approach are also incapable to reconcile with historical data. First, by efficient markets model, current stock price is simply the present value of future dividends. However, historical data suggests a smooth trend in dividends, which implies stock price should not be too volatile. Second, by this expected utility maximization approach, we can relate the stock price series to consumption series and dividend series. If consumption series and dividend series are not varying too much, a relatively stable stock price series is expected. However, historical data shows the volatility of stock price is too much to be accounted for the fluctuation of both consumption series and dividend series.

Fortunately, we can do more to keep this model alive. First Shiller argued that a varying real discount factor is help to solve this annoying issue. He further showed that, with certain value of parameters (including the Constant Relative Risk Aversion coefficient and subjective real interest rate), we can generate higher predict power of this model , i.e., we can explain the high volatility of stock price. Second, using a varying real discount factor, not only stock price but also prices of other assets (including land, housing and long term Treasury bond) are also predictable.

Regardless of the performance of this modified model, some restrictions are in hand. First, the model is with high predict power during periods of large-scale economic fluctuation, for example, post world war two periods. Second, it is rejected by monthly data. Third, some assumptions are not compelling, for example, a frictionless world. Although the idea of a varying real discount factor is not yet complete, it is indeed a persuasive argument.

How about the four objectives, are they solved? First, with a varying real discount factor, we are able to explain the excess volatility of stock price. Second, although aggregate consumption data may not be representative, other works showed the validity of aggregate consumption data. Third, the idea varying real discount factor is not restricted only on stock price. This modified model is applicable on any other long-term assets, in principle. Finally, this modified model shows the relationship between business cycle and real discount factor, although not perfectly fitted. In other words, we explain the business cycle behavior of real short-term interest rate since real short-term interest rate is a component of real discount factor.

What is puzzling?

In fact, Shiller concluded this paper by posing a big question: rather than a varying real discount factor is there any other better explanation. Along with this, he also posed two further queries. First, what causes the real discount factor to shift? Indeed, we do not know the actual mechanism of a varying real discount factor nor does one mention the shift of real discount factor itself. Second, individual consumer seems to behave as if they have more information than that implied by this model. Namely, individual consumer adjusts his/her behavior due to an unidentified source in order to smooth his/her consumption. Moreover, the adjustment that is reflected is the movement of real discount factor. What is the possible source of the new information? Three questions remain unsettled.

Despite these three remaining questions, Shiller implicitly pointed out two puzzles: Equity Premium Puzzle and Risk-free Rate Puzzle. In his paper, CRRA coefficient is set to be four. Later works showed that a higher value is consistently estimated. As we all know, a high CRRA coefficient implies that individual consumer becomes more risk-averse. In other words, a higher equity premium is expected for those who buy stocks. Historical data also show that the average return on equity has far exceeded the average return on short-term debt (about 6 percentage points (Mehra & Prescott, 1985)). Does this high equity premium come from the conservative behavior of individual consumers? Or, we should ask: why people become more and more risk-averse? This issue is generally known as the “Equity Premium Puzzle”. Another puzzling issue is related to the low growth rate of consumption. Recall equation (4), if we assume that consumption is growing with a particular rate each period, it seems that the growth rate is always too low to account for the high variability in stock price. This issue is known as the “Risk-free Rate Puzzle.” Without lost of generality, we may consider these two puzzles as two interpretations of one historical fact that stock price is too volatile and the real return of it is much higher than other competitive assets (Weil, 1989, for a detailed explanation).

Equity Premium: A Puzzle

It was in 1985, Mehra & Prescott first recognized this as a puzzle. In an important paper entitled “The equity premium: a puzzle”, they pointed out that models with Arrow-Debreu framework may not be able to reconcile with historical data (Mehra & Prescott, 1985). They claimed:

“… most likely, an equilibrium model which is not an Arrow-Debreu economy will be the one that simultaneously rationalizes both historically observed large average equity return and the small average risk-free return”.

Moreover, a challenge was set in this paper. With a CRRA coefficient less than ten, the results were essentially the same. This implies that any later researches with CRRA coefficient less than ten will be considered as eligible for valuation. Nevertheless, this criteria was set according to previous studies which may be traced back as early as 1971 in Arrow’s paper (Arrow, 1971). The validity of it demands further profound researches.

Solutions

An emerging industry was born as soon as Mehra and Prescott recognized it as a puzzle (Cochrane & Hansen, 1992). Tons of papers were released to try to solve this puzzle. In effect, these papers were conducted along three main streams. Next, we will discuss the three main approaches set to tackle the Equity Premium Puzzle.

First, as Mehra & Prescott pointed out, any Arrow-Debreu economy considering assumption that is more general may help to solve it. Heaton & Lucas (1996) and Luttmer (1999) showed that transaction cost might be a possible solution to the puzzle. Heaton & Lucas incorporated transaction cost into their model with incomplete market settings. With a high transaction cost level, they were able to generate the high equity premium but it seems implausible that we have high transaction cost, especially in recent decades. Luttmer followed a slightly different way. He concentrated on measuring the lower bound of possibly cost incurred during transaction. As in Heaton & Lucas (1996), the fixed cost level remains too high. Regardless of the high level of fixed cost, Luttmer actually generated the lower bound, which is a major contribution to the issue.

Second, some studies stick to the Arrow-Debreu framework with more restrictions on individual consumer’s behavior, such as Campbell & Cochrane (1999), Cecchetti, Lam and Mark (2000). Campbell & Cochrane (1999) argued that consistent consumption habit formation is a cure. With certain level of habit formation, they generated a virtually identical stock price series. Cochrane himself was satisfied with this achievement and published another paper to explain the poor performance in consumption based assets pricing model. Although his model successfully fitted the historical data, this result was expected. If you go back to equation (4) and take a closer look of it, you can find the trade off between the variability of consumption series and CRRA coefficient. Thus, Cochrane could have generated a lower parameter with a more variable consumption series that he conducted with consumption formation in his paper. Hence, Shiller did a major contribution back in 1982. As a saying goes “there may be superior techniques, however, there may not be superior insight.”

Finally, some other papers work also argued regarding the validity of aggregate consumption data, such as Mankiw & Zeldes (1991). We will not elaborate at this point, since Shiller (1982) already examined a similar argument. We want to point out that aggregate consumption data may not be as representative as we required but, with historical evidence, it is hard to neglect that aggregate consumption is somehow lower than we expected.

Concluding Remarks

Up to this moment, researchers are still working on the solution of this puzzle. In fact, if you believe what Shiller said in 1982, then it seems the puzzle is no longer puzzling. Instead, we need more general researches on human behavior to find out how people can react so fast or how people can acquire more information than we expect. In addition, this will help to explain the shift in real discount factor and solve the puzzle in principle. However, what he said may not be valid and we need some more works to be done on this issue. There are three approaches to tackle the puzzle if you try to solve the puzzle. The first one is a debate over reasonable assumptions. Can one find a set of assumptions to describe the real world and can the model be solved with these assumptions? It is a matter of belief over the abstract explaining ability of models. Second seems to become a deeper question of human behavior. Individual consumer does not behave as we assumed in the model. There may be some other elements affecting his/her decision. As for the third, it depends on the way you interpret available data. Is equity premium puzzle still puzzling? I believe it is.

Reference:

J. Campbell and J. Cochrane (1999), “By Force of Habit: A consumption-Based Expectation of Aggregate Stock Market Behavior,” JPE 107, 205-251

J. Heaton and D. Lucas (1996), “Evaluating the Effects of Incomplete Markets on Risk Sharing and Asset Pricing,” JPE 104, 668-712

E. Luttmer (1999), “What Level of Fixed Costs Can Reconcile Consumption and Stock Returns,” JPE 107, 969-997

N. Mankiw and S. Zeldes (1991), “The Consumption of Stockholders and Non-Stockholder,” JFE 29, 97-112

R. Mehra and E. Prescott (1985), “The Equity Premium: A Puzzle,” JME 15, 145-161

R. Shiller (1982), “Consumption, Asset Markets, and Macroeconomic Fluctuations,” CR 17, 203-238

Other Readings:

J. Campbell and J. Cochrane (1999), “Explaining the Poor Performance of Consumption Based Asset Pricing Model,” NBER Working Papers #7237

J. Cochrane and L Hansen (1992), “Asset Pricing Explorations for Macroeconomics,” NBER Working Paper #4088

R. Shiller (1990), “Market Volatility and Investor Behavior,” AER, 80, 2 , 58-62


電影裡的經濟學

不久之前,衛視電影台又重播了一次"電子情書"。看到一半,自己突然大笑了起來,發現原來經濟學真是無所不在!看電影原本是為了逃避苦悶的理論,到頭來還是逃不出經濟學的手掌心,經濟學還真是生活的一部分。

第一次對電影裡的經濟學留下深刻印象是在看電影"美麗境界"(沒錯,就是那部羅素克洛主演,講述數學家(經濟學家)納許心路歷程的得獎作品)時。話說納許和一群朋友因研究苦悶而到酒吧尋歡,此時進來了一群單身妙齡女郎,納許和他的朋友們發現這五位單身女郎中有一位特別耀眼動人(我們就稱她為Q,Queen,吧),雖說其他四位也各具姿色,這位Q女儼然是這群最佳選擇。對這群以納許為首的聰明男士們來說,採取行動之前必定要有嚴密的邏輯推理做後盾,確保能畢其功於一役。此時納許作了一個邏輯的推斷如下,如果納許及其單身夥伴們都對Q發動攻勢,成功的機會就相對的小了,所以退而求其次應該會確保成功的機率。接著他發現,他的朋友一一地走向Q以外的女郎並且都成功地完成任務,並各自帶開。此時納許非常高興地向Q女道謝,因為他的推論成真,並獲得他博士論文的靈感,最後只剩Q女一人呆駐身後。這其中的奧妙在哪裡呢?對我來說,這是賽局理論中討論最適策略及納許均衡的例子(或許不夠嚴謹,但足以讓你體會到經濟學無所不在的威力)。納許和他的朋友的邏輯推論如下,假設每一個人都想和Q女單獨約會以獲取最高的效用,那選擇前去和Q女搭訕會遭遇到其他人的嚴格挑戰,成功的機會相對縮小,這時候,假設其它人都是前去和Q女搭訕,那我所能夠採取的最適策略就是去和第二漂亮的女生搭訕,並且有最高的成功機率。如果納許和他的朋友都採取這個最適策略,最後的均衡就是除了Q女之外,其他四位女生都有單獨約會的對象,而Q女因為納許要回研究是寫下這靈感而呆駐街頭了。其實這個現象在多年前的節目"來電五十"中也常常發生,很多的男生到節目的結尾都向同一個女生表達心意,最後只有一位最得該女歡心的男生會獲得青睞,如果他們先唸了一點賽局理論,或許每一個人都會抱得美人歸。

第二次發現電影中有經濟學教材就是在不久前的"電子情書"中。由湯姆漢克主演的連鎖書店老闆透過網路認識了經營童書書店的梅格萊恩,連鎖書店以量販價格優勢逼得梅格萊恩只能放棄經營許久的童書書店。我覺得這部電影點出了產品差異化的經濟概念其中有兩個場景是相當有趣的經濟學教材。第一,當梅格萊恩到星巴克購買咖啡時,她想起了湯姆漢克對他說過的話。星巴克提供了大杯,中杯,低咖啡因,等等的的產品組合,不像在於製造好喝的咖啡,而是讓消費者表明自己的定位。例如,你可能會到星巴克點一杯"中杯低卡拿鐵",一方面表達了你自己身分,另一方面選擇了你最喜歡的產品。在經濟理論中,產品差異化模型描述的正是這樣的消費者選擇。例如兩個廠商生產品質不同的同類產品,消費者會選擇得到最高淨效用的產品,進而指明所要購買的品牌。如果一個廠商生產了不同類型的同種產品(例如星巴克生產不同類型的咖啡),消費者也同樣會選擇他最喜歡(淨效用最高)的產品(中杯低卡拿鐵)。有趣的地方在於我們都喜歡自我定位(追求淨效用最高),而廠商就提供了讓我們自我定位的工具(中杯低卡拿鐵)而賺大錢囉。第二,劇中的連鎖書店(福斯書店)和童書書店(街角書局)的競爭。在差異化模型中,當兩個產品的品質一致,能爭取消費購買的方式就是降低價格了(假設模型中只有品質和價格兩個策略變數)。劇中的結局是梅格萊恩結束的街角書局的營業,福斯書店增加了童書專區。其實道理很簡單,在品質相同的情形下,價格成為決定因素。福斯書店擁有較低的成本(量販書店),自然擊敗了街角書局(雖然街角書局提供較為貼心親切的服務)。依照產品差異化模型的預測,如果街角書局能提供與福斯書店更大差距的服務(最大差異化),或許還有生存下去的可能。寫完這些,我不禁覺得編劇應該是經濟系畢業的高材生,他沒有陷入困境(像我),反而將經濟理論生活化,化作動人心弦的精彩佳作。其實冷冰冰的經濟學還真的是生活中的一部分!

白光LED簡介

白光LED的技術概況

自從出現發光二極體LED以來,人們一直在努力追求實現固體光源,隨著發光二極體LED製造工藝的不斷進步和新型材料(氮化物晶體和熒光粉)的開發及應用,使發白色光的LED半導體固體光源性能不斷完善並進入實用階段。白光LED的出現,使高亮度LED應用領域跨足至高效率照明光源市場。曾經有人指出,高亮度LED將是人類繼艾狄生發明白熾燈泡之后,最偉大的發明之一。所謂白光是多種顏色混合而成的光,以人類眼睛所能見的白光形式至少須兩種光混合,如二波長光(藍色光+黃色光)或三波長光(藍色光+綠色光+紅色光),目前已商品化的產品僅有二波長藍光單晶片加上YAG黃色熒光粉,在未來較被看好的是三波長光,以無機紫外光晶片加R.G.B三顏色熒光粉,此外有機單層三波長型白光LED也有成本低、製作容易的優點。預計三波長白光LED今年有商品化的機機會,未來應用在取代熒光燈、緊湊型節能熒光燈泡及LCD背光源等市場,對白光LED的市場成長有很大的幫助。

在技術方面白光LED目前主要分為兩種發光模式:目前主要的商品化作法是日亞化學(Nichia)以460nm波長的InGaN藍光晶粒涂上一層YAG熒光物質,利用藍光LED照射此一熒光物質以產生與藍光互補的555nm波長黃光,再利用透鏡原理將互補的黃光、藍光予以混合,便可得出肉眼所需的白光。白光LED開發基礎在于藍光技術,目前在藍光LED技術方面仍以日亞化學領先,擁有眾多專利權。第二種是日本住友電工亦開發出以ZnSe為材料的白光LED,不過發光效率較差,但由於目前白光LED市場熱銷,仍呈現供不應由求現象。

業界概況

在LED業者中,日亞化學是最早運用上述技術工藝研發出不同波長的高亮度LED,以及藍紫光半導體鐳射(Laser Diode;LD),是業界握有藍光LED專利權的重量級業者。在日亞化學取得蘭色LED生產及電極構造等眾多基本專利后,堅持不對外提供授權,僅采自行生產策略,意圖獨佔市場,使得藍光LED價格高昂。但其他已具備生產能力的業者相當不以為然,部分日系LED業者認為,日亞化工的策略,將使日本在藍光及白光LED競爭中,逐步被歐美及其他國家的LED業者搶得先機,屆時將對整體日本LED產業造成嚴重傷害。因此許多業者便千方百計進行藍光LED的研發生產。目前除日亞化學和住友電工外,還有豐田合成、羅沐、東芝和夏普,美商Cree,全球3大照明廠奇異、飛利浦、歐司朗以及HP、Siemens、 Research、EMCORE等都投入了該產品的研發生產,對促進白光LED產品的產業化、市場化方面起到了積極的促進作用。

白光LED的特色

白光LED是最被看好的LED新興產品,其在照明市場的發展潛力值得期待。與白熾鎢絲燈泡及熒光燈相比,LED具有體積小(多顆、多種組合)、發熱量低(沒有熱幅射)、耗電量小(低電壓、低電流起動)、壽命長(1萬小時以上)、回應速度快(可在高頻操作)、環保(耐震、耐衝擊不易破、廢棄物可回收,沒有污染)、可平面封裝易開發成輕薄短小產品等優點,沒有白熾燈泡高耗電、易碎及日光燈廢棄物含汞污染的問題等缺點,是被業界看好在未來10年內,成為替代道統照明器具的一大潛力商品。

表一:白光LED與現行照明設備比較

照明模式 特點

白光LED 具有發熱量低、耗電量少(白熾燈泡的八分之一,熒光燈泡的二分之一)、壽命長(數萬小時以上,是熒光燈的10倍)、回應速度快、體積小可平面封裝等優點,易開發成輕薄短小的產品,是被業界看好在未來10年內,成為替代道統照明器具的一潛力商品。
熒光燈 熒光燈省電,但廢棄物有汞污染、易碎等問題。
白熾鎢絲燈泡 低效率、高耗電、壽命短、易碎。

目前白光LED仍處于初期發展階段,在使用壽命上仍待改進,但基本上沒有白熾燈泡、熒光燈的缺點,價格過高是未能普及的主要原因。據日本業者估計,LED晶粒成本需由99年的每顆1美元降至0.2美元以下,市場才有更高的接受度。未來白光LED的應用市場將非常廣泛,包括手電筒、裝飾燈、LCD背光源、汽車內部照明市場、投影燈源等,不過最被看好的市場以及最大的市場還是取代白熾鎢絲燈泡及熒光燈。

表二:白光LED照明效益分析

地區\條件‧效益 條件 能源節約 降低二氧化碳排放
美國 55%白熾燈及55%日光燈被白光LED取代 每年節省350億美元電費。 每年減少7.55億公頓二氧化碳排放量。
日本 100%白熾燈被白光LED取代 可減少1-2座核電廠發電量。 每年節省10億公升以上的原油消耗。
台灣 25%白熾燈及100%日光燈被白光LED取代 節省110億度電,約合1座核電廠發電量。

表二所示是對白光市場的經濟和環境效益預測,對于十分倚賴能源進口的國家如日本,發展白光LED在照明市場取代部份道統照明器具是一項極有價價值的計畫,若是其100%的白熾燈泡被白光LED所取代,則每年可省下相當于1~2座發電廠的發電量。間接減少大約10億公升的耗油量,而發電過程中排放的二氧化碳也會減少,抑制地球的溫室效應擴散,因此在日本對白光LED的研發有著及其重要的作用和地位,日本通產省早在1998年就主導編製了「21世紀光計畫」,針對新世紀照明用LED光源進行實用化研究。

白光LED的應用與市場規模

新世紀照明主流是高亮度白光LED的終極目標。對白光LED而言,照明替換市場是相當有潛力的。過去常規LED只能在產品上充當指示燈號,而今隨著技術進步、亮度提升,高亮度白光LED正一步步進軍潛力龐大無比的燈光照明市場。根據Frost Sullivan的統計,當前全球照明市場的年均成長率約為5.5%,2000年市場規模達45億美元,是可見光LED的2倍以上。若以每年白光LED發光效率平均成長60%的速度開發下去,要達到大型化、低價化、使用壽命長的照明用光源並非不可能。業界一般認為,白光LED照明市場可望在2010年左右趨于成熟。目前日亞化工、豐田合成、SONY、住友電工等業者都已有初步的照明產品問世,唯因價格與常規燈泡相比仍有很大的差距。預計未來10年內,高亮度LED對全球照明工業將造成巨大的衝擊。正因為此,各界都對白光LED寄以濃望,有[綠色照明光源]之稱。

表三:白光LED市場概況 單位︰百萬美元

年份 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
汽車用 10 13 18 23 31 41
電腦用 13 16 21 28 37 49
民用 19 24 32 42 55 73
工業用 6 8 11 14 18 24
軍事/天文用 6 7 9 12 16 22
通訊用 13 17 22 30 39 51
其他 3 4 5 6 8 11
總計 70 88 118 156 204 270

資料來源︰ReedElectronicsResearch,1999/7

在照明市場方面,根據Reed Electronics Research統計,99年全球白光LED市場有8800萬美元的市場,估計2000年將可成長至1.18億美元的規模,未來3年均將保持40%左右的成長速度,在2003年可達到2.7億美元的市場規規模。未來在白光LED成本進一步降低、照明應用領域陸續開發的情形下,預計白光LED從2004年開始,還會有更為可觀的市場規模突破,顯示出此一產品具有相當大的市場爆發力。

另外,車用市場亦將是白光LED的高成長領域。以2000年全球新車市場需求約5,300萬台計算,每輛汽車內裝約100顆LED,用于儀表板、空調音響面板等照明燈、后座閱讀燈等用途,則可得出車用LED市場年需求約為53億顆。當前車用LED市場主要由HP及Osram Opto佔有大部分,其他加入業者有Siemens等。

未來白光LED在技術上有朝三波長全彩發展的趨勢,在亮度上目前每瓦15流明,未來目標是達到每瓦50流明;在價格上現階段每個20元台幣,未來目標降至5元台幣;因此三波長全彩、高流明、低成本是白光LED的發展趨勢,目前全球大廠也積極努力中,預估在2010年前可達成此目標。

表四:白光LED未來研發動向

發展方向
目前指標 研發目標
提升光效率 15 lm/W 100 lm/W
1.GaN無機UV─LED短波激發光源研發 460 nm 254 nm
2.外部能量轉換效率研發 10% 40%
3.高熒光材料能量轉換效率研發 60% 90%
降低成本 2 lm/$ 2000 lm/$
1.無機LED晶體成本 1個/$ 0.2個/$
2.高操作功率技術研發

克魯格曼紐約時報專欄:劫貧濟富經濟學

上星期,華盛頓郵報從預算管理局拿到了一份備忘錄,要求聯邦機構準備在選後刪減布希競選時推動的計畫的預算。其中包含了對婦女,嬰兒及幼童的補助計畫,Head Start計畫 (譯註:一項協助資優兒童發展的計畫)與國土安全防衛計畫。這些數字與前些日子外流的一份報表相符,一份執政團隊否認與政策無關的報表。

在一貫的欺瞞之外,備忘錄外流的事件替我們指出了更大的真相:不管他們對大眾如何說明,執政團隊的官員明白,要支持布希的減低稅賦政策必須以大規模消減其他受歡迎的政府計畫的預算因應。並且,對絕大多數的美國民眾來說,減少這些計畫支出帶來的損失大過於減低稅賦稅帶來的好處

長期以來一直都很清楚的是,布希的執政團隊宣稱他們可以同時支應戰爭並降低稅賦,一個"週延"的政策綱領,是不可行的。現在,我們獲得直接的証實,白宮方面將改弦易幟,在今年選後實行一個不全然"週延"的政策綱領。(譯註:這裡"compassionate"真的很難翻譯)

這個新政策綱領就是施行劫貧濟富經濟學-劫富濟貧的相反。(譯註:英文原文為Dooh Nibor economics — Robin Hood in reverse,把羅賓漢的英文拼法顛倒,意指作和劫富濟貧相反的事)現在政策的結果是由中產階級轉移至富人的大規模所得重分配,這會使得百分之八十的人口受損失,而大多數的利得流向年收入超過二十萬美元的民眾。

我無法用官方數據來支持我的陳述,因為在布希執政下,財政部停止發佈依照所得水準的減低稅賦分配資料。由提供執政團隊不想讓你知道的數字的Urban Institute-Brookings Institution Tax Policy Center的估計說明其中道理。今年,在布希執政下,平均每個家庭的稅賦減免為一千四百八十八美元。但是,這個平均數反映出少數富有家庭獲得的巨額減免,而大多數家庭獲得較少的減免(這也同時解釋了為什麼根據民調,大部分民眾不相信他們有獲得稅賦減免)。事實上,收入超過一百萬美元的二十五萬七千戶家庭所獲得的總減免,超過佔所得結構下方佔人口百分之六十的八千五百萬民眾所獲得的總減免。雖說如此,大多數的家庭不是都會或多或少受益嗎?不會的,因為減低稅賦最終要透過消減支出來因應。

布希在三年前說他消減稅賦以將預算盈餘歸還給大眾。相反的,他帶領走向巨大的赤字。結果是,絕大部分美國民眾所享有的的減稅,從最基礎的角度看來,是一場騙局。這就像某人期望你對他的禮物表達感激之意,而他卻是用你的信用卡付帳。執政團隊到現在,理所當然的,還未解釋將如何支應這些支出。但是,除非再次增加稅賦,答案將是巨幅削減如Social Security,Medicare 與 Medicaid的預算,因為這是大部份的支出所在。

對大部分的家庭來說,減少這些補助帶來的損失遠大過減稅帶來的好處。我隨手的計算告訴我,有百分之八十的家庭最終會生活變差;Center on Budget and Policy Priorities會很快地發布經過詳細計算分析的一致結論。而唯一獲利的是少數處於金字塔高層的富人。

布希了解這項政策的最終結果是讓富人更富有而大多數的美國民眾生活變差嗎?誰知道呢?但是,這些政策綱領後的政治作手和支持者和很清楚他們的所作所為。
不用說,如果選民了解這些政策綱領,他們絕不會支持的。這也是為什麼誤導,像是執政團隊不斷依賴假帳目,現在又是預算刪減的備忘錄事件,一直是白宮政治策略的主要特色。

二零零四年的大選,從現在看來,應是對布希災難外交政策的一次公投。不過,還有些事情仍待商榷:是否布希和他的政黨能穩住用來推動他們挺富人反中產階級經濟策略的不敗政治立場。對了,並不是我在煽動階級戰爭,他們才是。

大頭智翻譯心得:布希政府的減稅政策其實一直備受批評,主要原因是因為減稅政策不公平(依所得水準分布來看)。雖說減稅是在景氣衰退時期的因應之道,但不公平的減稅政策無法刺激大部分的美國民眾消費,反而因為其他補助預算的刪減,民眾需要進一步降低消費來因應。凱因斯的觀念裏,維持一般水準的消費會帶來經濟的穩定增長,如果在景氣衰退時期,民眾消費意願降低,可以藉由政府的支出來刺激消費,等到景氣好轉時再藉由稅收盈餘彌補赤字。但是,布希政府的行動卻因政策的制定錯誤,只能刺激少部份富人的消費,對整體景氣好轉卻無太大幫助。接著,稅收的降低反而造成了聯邦赤字的增加,布希政府需要裁減許多聯邦計畫的預算,而這些計畫與大部分民眾息息相關,刪減預算會使得大部分民眾更降低消費水準,如果這樣下去,美國國內的經濟會更加困難。


原文:紐約時報克魯格曼專欄